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Appendix: Grammar Tips d COMMA AND SEMICOLON USAGE
Lists
For most lists, use commas. Only use semicolons when commas create confusion. There is some debate as to whether or not a comma is required before the conjunction. However, I suggest using the comma to prevent confusion.
Commas. The breakfast menu included ham, eggs, pancakes, omelets, and French toast. Commas and Semicolons. The breakfast menu included a choice of fried, scrambled, or hard-boiled eggs; ham, bacon, or sausage; and potatoes, grits, or gravy.1
Nonessential and Essential Clauses
Nonessential Clauses
Nonessential clauses should be set off by commas.
Incorrect. My window as dirty as it is reveals the beauty of nature on a snowy morning. Correct. My window, as dirty as it is, reveals the beauty of nature on a snowy morning.
The clause “as dirty as it is” is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, and therefore should be set off by commas.2
Essential Clauses
Essential clauses should not be set off by commas.
Incorrect. A man, who is married, has a date every night, whether he wants it or not. Correct. A man who is married has a date every night whether he wants it or not.
The clause “who is married” is essential to the meaning of the sentence; therefore, it is not set off by commas.2
COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS oAffect/Effect
Affect is a verb meaning “to have an influence on” or “to cause a change in,” except in psychiatry where it is used as a noun to characterize mood. Effect is a noun meaning “something brought about by a cause or agent; a result.”
Verb. Bad weather will adversely affect the flight schedule. Noun (Psychiatry). The patient has a flat affect. Noun. The effect of bad weather is to alter the flight schedule.3,4
Backward/Backwards
Either adverb, backward or backwards, may be used when meaning “in reverse order of direction,” although backward is preferred.
In Reverse Order of Direction. Tony is good at skating backward (or backwards).4
Between/Among
Between should be used for two people or things and among for three or more people or things.
Two. The choice is between the red sweater and the yellow sweater. He called his wife between the third and fourth quarters of the football game. Three or More. The choice is among the red sweater, the yellow sweater, or the green sweater. He ran among the trees in the forest.
Similarly, each other should be used with two people or things; one another should be used with three or more people or things.
Two. My daughters love each other. Three or More. The three of us will see one another at the next ballgame.3
Bimonthly/Semimonthly
Bimonthly is an adjective that means “every two months” or “twice a month”—take your choice. Because of the confusion, the best choice is to avoid the term and say exactly what you mean. Semimonthly is an adjective that means “happening twice a month.”
Bimonthly (Avoid). We get paid bimonthly. (Use). We get paid every two months. We get paid twice a month. Semimonthly. We have semimonthly meetings on the 1st and the 15th.3,4 Blonde/ Blond
Blonde is feminine and blond is masculine. However, in recent years, as an adjective, blond has been used for either sex. As a noun, blonde is preferred when referring to a female.
Adjective. The girl has blonde (or blond) hair. Adjective. The boy has blond hair. Noun. The blonde crossed her legs and winked.3
Capital/Capitol
The “city or town that is the seat of government” is called the capital; the “building in which the legislative assembly meets” is the capitol. The term capital can also refer to an “accumulation of wealth.”3
City or Town. The capital of Mississippi is Jackson. Wealth. The company has built up a great deal of capital. Building. The legislature meets in the capitol.4
Cite/Site/Sight
Cite is a verb that means “to quote as an authority or example.” It also means “to recognize formally” or “to summon before a court of law.” Site is a noun meaning “location.” Sight has to do with vision.
Quote as an Authority. I cited many research studies in my dissertation. Recognize Formally. The mayor was cited for service to the community. Summon before a Court. The company was cited for cooking the books. Location. They chose a site for the new hospital near the lake. Vision. His sight is not what it used to be.3
Complement is a noun or verb that means “something that completes or makes up a whole.” Compliment is a noun or verb that means an “expression of praise or admiration.”
To Complete. Her earrings are a perfect complement to the blouse. Expression of Praise. I received a compliment about my new jacket.3,4
Strictly speaking, one convinces a person that something is true, but persuades a person to do something. Following this rule, convince should not be used with an infinitive.
Something is True. Jack convinced his son he needed a haircut. To Do Something. Bill persuaded me to ask Charlotte for a date.3,4 g Discreet/Discrete
Discreet is an adjective that means “prudent,” “circumspect,” or “modest.” It applies only to people. Discrete is an adjective that means “separate” or “individually distinct.” It applies only to objects.
Prudent, Circumspect, Modest. Her discreet handling of the touchy situation put him at ease. Separate, Individually Distinct. Light is made up of discrete particles called photons.3,4
Elicit is a verb that means “to draw out.” Illicit is an adjective meaning “unlawful” or “prohibited.”
To Draw Out. I tried to elicit a few scandalous stories from her. Unlawful or prohibited. She kept knowledge of the illicit activity from the police. Jack admitted he had an illicit love affair.3,4 g
Emigrant is a noun that means “one who leaves one's native country to settle in another.” Immigrant is a noun that means “one who enters and settles in a new country.”
Leaves Native Country. The emigrants left their country on board a ship. Enters New Country. Most of the immigrants easily found jobs.3
Especially means “particularly,” “more than others,” or “to a marked degree.” Specially means “for a specific purpose” or “for a designated reason.”
More than Others. Sam is an especially capable teacher. Specific Purpose. The house was designed specially for an invalid.3
Farther/Further
Farther is an adjective and adverb that means “at a more distant point.” Further is an adjective and adverb that means “to a greater extent or degree.” It can also mean “in addition” or “moreover.”
More Distant Point. We drove 50 miles today; tomorrow, we will drive 100 miles farther. To a Greater Extent. We won't be able to suggest a solution until we are further along in our evaluation of the problem. In Addition. They stated further that they would not change the policy.3
Figuratively is an adverb that means “metaphorically” or “symbolically.” Literally is an adverb that means “actually.” It also means “according to the exact meaning of the words.”
Symbolically. When the large man jumped out of the shadows, we figuratively jumped out of our shoes. Actually. I'm not exaggerating when I say I literally fell off my chair. Exact Meaning. I translated the Latin passage literally.3,4
Flammable and inflammable are synonyms, both meaning “easily set on fire.” You should use nonflammable to mean “not flammable.”
Can Burn. The highly flammable (or inflammable) fuel was stored in a specially built tank. Cannot Burn. The contents of the truck were nonflammable.3
To flaunt means “to show off shamelessly” or “to boast.” To flout means “to show scorn or contempt for.”
Show Off. John flaunted his wealth by bedecking his wife with jewelry and expensive clothes. Show Contempt. Women in the 1930s who openly smoked flouted convention.3,4
Foreword is a noun that means “an introductory note or preface.” Forward is an adjective or adverb that means “toward the front.” Forward is also a verb that means “to send on.”
Introductory Note. In my foreword I explained my reasons for writing the book. Toward the Front. I sat in the forward section of the plane. To Send On. Forward the e-mail to everyone in your address book.3 d
In its primary sense, founder means “to sink below the surface of the water.” By extension, founder means “to fail utterly.” Flounder means “to move about clumsily” or “to act with confusion.”
Sink below the Surface, Fail Utterly. The ship foundered after colliding with an iceberg. The president foundered in his attempt to bring peace to the country. Act with Confusion. After floundering through the first half of the course, Amy finally passed American History with the help of a tutor.3
Good is an adjective referring to “quality” or “appearance;” well is an adjective and an adverb.
Quality, Appearance. I had a good meal. The tangerines look good.
Health,
Verb Modifier. My brother looks well (healthy). Tom runs well
(how he runs).3,4
Hanged is the past tense and past participle of hang when the meaning is “to execute by suspending by the neck.” Hung is the past tense and participle of hang when the meaning is “to suspend from above with no support from below,” not referring to a person.
Hung by the Neck. They hanged the convicted killer at dawn. Suspend from Above. I hung the painting on the wall. The painting was hung at a crooked angle.3,4
To infer is “to draw a conclusion from what someone has said or from circumstances.” To imply is “to suggest or to hint.”
Draw Conclusion. From the facts I infer you are guilty. Suggest, Hint. Do you mean to imply I stole the money?4
It's/Its
It’s is a verb contraction for “it is” and requires an apostrophe. Its is used to indicate possession and lacks an apostrophe.
Verb Contraction. It's the plane Lindberg flew across the Atlantic. Possession. The boat slipped its moorings.3,4,5
Laid/Lain/Lay
Laid is the past tense and the past participle of the verb lay and not the past tense of lie. The parts of speech of lay are lie, laid, laid. Lay is the past tense of the verb lie and lain is the past participle. The parts of speech for lie are lie, lay, lain.
Past Tense of Lay. Tom laid his books down. Past Participle of Lay. Tom has laid his books in the same place for months. Past Tense of Lie. Tom lay down on the couch. Past Participle of Lie. Tom has lain on the couch for an hour.3,4
Principal is a noun that means “a person who holds a high position” or “plays an important role.” It is also an adjective that means “chief or leading cause.” Principle is a noun that means “a rule or standard.”
Hold a High Position. Our school principal is an excellent administrator. Chief or Leading. The necessity of moving to another city was the principal reason I turned down the job offer. Rule or Standard. He refused to compromise his principles.3 d Stationary/Stationery
Stationary is an adjective that means “fixed position.” Stationery is a noun that means “writing materials.”
Fixed Position. They maneuvered around the stationary barrier in the road. Writing Material. We printed the letters on company stationery.3,4
Than/Then/To
Than is a conjunction used for comparisons. Then is an adverb indicating “when.”
Comparison. He is better in math than I. When. We studied for an hour; then we went to the movies.
Confusion sometimes occurs between the use of than and to.
Incorrect. The athlete is much superior than all the rest. Red is preferable than blue. Correct. The athlete is much superior to all the rest. Red is preferable to blue.3,5
That/Which
The key to determining when to use that and when to use which is in deciding whether the clause or phrase that follows is essential to defining what you mean or is simply parenthetical information. Use that with essential phrases or clauses and which with nonessential phrases or clauses.
Holding up one book. “I'll give you this book, which explains grammatical rules.” Holding up more than one book. “I'll give you the book that explains grammatical rules.” d In the first example, you don't need to know the book is about grammar to know which book is meant. There’s only one book. In the second example, if a history book and a grammar book are held up, you need to know the book referred to is the one that explains grammatical rules to know which book is meant. Rule: When the information that follows is nonessential to the meaning of the sentence, use which and set the phrase or clause off by a comma. When the information that follows is essential to the meaning of the sentence, use that and don't set your phrase or clause off by a comma.6
Toward/Towards
Both words, toward and towards, are acceptable in writing.
I ran toward
the wall. I ran towards the wall. 4,5
DOUBLE NEGATIVES
Unfortunately, double negatives occur in daily conversation and are carried over into narrative by some writers. Characters of course are allowed to use double negatives or any other breach of good grammar rules.
Incorrect. He doesn’t know nothing about nuclear physics. Correct. He doesn’t know anything about nuclear physics. He knows nothing about nuclear physics.
The proper constructions is to use either the negative adverb or a noun of negation, but not both.1
MODIFIERS d A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that limits or qualifies the sense of another word or word group.
A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that because of its proximity seems to modify a word it could not logically modify. One of the most common dangling modifiers occurs in the following sentence:
Incorrect. Hopefully, the novel will be interesting. Correct. I hope the novel will be interesting.
In the incorrect example, “hopefully” is an adverb that appears to modify the noun “novel,” the subject of the sentence. But how can a novel be hopeful? To fix the sentence, you need to show who's really doing the hoping, as in the second example. Now, consider the following example:
Incorrect. Screaming all the way, the roller coaster thrilled us. Correct. Screaming all the way, we were thrilled by the roller coaster.1
The incorrect example implies that the roller coaster was screaming, resulting in a thrill for the riders. It should be made clear that the riders were screaming not the roller coaster, as in the correct example.1,7,8
Nearly, Almost, and Only
Pay special attention to the modifiers “nearly,” “almost,” and “only.” They must appear adjacent to the word they are intended to modify. The placement of these words can change the meaning of a sentence. For example, consider the following:
Joe nearly passed the test with 100 percent. (means he nearly passed the test, but failed despite his great grade) Only Joe was accused of theft. (no one else was accused) Joe was only accused of theft. (accused but not convicted) Joe was accused of theft only. (accused of nothing else)1,6,9,
ONE WORD OR TWO?
Alright/All Right
All right means “okay.” Alright is not a word. Don’t use it.
It's not all right to use alright.3
Altogether/All together
Altogether is an intensifying adverb meaning “wholly,” “completely,” or “entirely.” All together is applied to people or things that are being treated as a group. All together is the form that must be used if the sentence can be reworded so that “all” and “together” are separated by other words
Entirely. I am altogether pleased to be receiving this honor. Group. We put the knives, forks, and spoons all together in the drawer. We put all the knives, forks, and spoons together in the drawer.3,10
Anyone/Anybody/Any One
Anyone is a pronoun meaning “any person at all.” Anybody is a less formal form of anyone. Any one is a paired adjective and noun meaning a “specific item in a group;” usually used with “of.”
Any Person at All. Anyone who can solve this problem deserves an award. Specific Item in a Group. We looked at all the cars in the lot, but we didn’t like any one of them.4,10
Anyway/Any Way
Anyway is an adverb meaning “in any case” or “nonetheless.” Any way is a paired adjective and noun meaning “any particular course, “direction, or manner.”
Nonetheless. He objected, but she went anyway. Any Manner. You may dress any way you choose. 4,10
Awhile/A While
Awhile is an adverb meaning “for a short time.” It usually does not need a preposition. A while is a paired article and noun meaning “a period of time.”
For a Short Time. Won’t you stay awhile? A Period of Time. We chatted for a while, and then we went to sleep.10
Cannot/Can Not z Cannot means “is unable to do,” while can not is an awkward way to say “is able to refrain from.” In general, it's best to avoid can not altogether. z Unable to Do. I have a paralyzed arm. I cannot move it. Unable to Refrain From. I bet you can’t move your arm. I understand that I can not move my arm. If I do I lose the bet.3 x However/How Ever
However is used to mean “in which manner” or “nevertheless.” How ever is used to emphasize.
In Which Manner, Nevertheless. However we decide, we must decide soon. Emphasis. How ever did you make such a big mess in your room?4
Maybe/May Be
Maybe is an adverb meaning “perhaps.” May be is a form of the verb “be.” u Perhaps. Maybe we should wait until the crowd clears. Form of Be. This may be our best chance to win the lottery.
Many more examples of the correct use of words are found in Morton S. Freeman’s book The Wordwatcher’s guide to Good Writing and Grammar (1990).10 a POSSESSIVES
Add an apostrophe and an “s” to singular nouns to indicate possession. Add the apostrophe after the letter “s” to indicate a plural possessive, unless the dual “s” sounds are pronounced, then add apostrophe and “s.” The following are all correct or preferred:
Singular Possessive. We located the cat’s toy under the chair. Plural Possessive. The two cats’ toys were tattered. Plural Possessive. The Smiths’ cat chased the dog. Plural Possessive. The Jones’s cat chased the dog.1
PRONOUNS
Case
Pronoun case refers to the pronoun’s status as a subject, indirect object, or direct object as shown in the following table.
There is a tendency by some to use the subjective case when the objective case should be used.
Incorrect. He threw the book at Jane and I. Correct. He threw the book at Jane and me.
This mistake is so common that even news commentators, who should know better, sometimes make it. Needless to say, it is a common error made by sports commentators.1,8
The form of the noun and the pronoun must be equal in number, person, and gender. To determine correct noun-pronoun agreement, determine if the noun that the pronoun is referring to is singular or plural.
“Person,”
a singular noun,
requires a singular pronoun, “his” or “her.” “People” is a plural noun and
requires the plural pronoun “their.” Incorrect. A person should see their doctor yearly. Correct. A person should see his doctor yearly. Correct. People should see their doctor yearly. Correct. Ed and Sarah should see their doctors yearly.9 f Antecedent Agreement
Pronouns should agree with their antecedents. “He,” “she,” “his,” “her,” and “their” are confused by many writers. When you see “their” in a sentence about “each” or “every,” it is probably incorrect.
Incorrect. Each student is asked to bring their supplies to class. Correct. Each student is asked to bring his supplies to class.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE f Comma Splice
Comma splices are independent sentences that are run together into a single sentence, joined by a comma. Comma splices often can be corrected by a semi-colon, a conjunction (and, or, nor, yet, but, so, for), or a period.
Incorrect. Smith’s arguments in favor of investing the money are quite effective, they are very similar to those of many financial advisors. Correct. Smith’s arguments in favor of investing the money are quite effective; they are very, similar to those of many financial advisors. Correct. Smith’s arguments in favor of investing the money are quite effective and they are very similar to those of many financial advisors. Correct. Smith’s arguments in favor of investing the money are quite effective. They are very similar to those of many financial advisors.1,5, 6,9
Run-On (Fused) Sentences d Run-on or Fused sentences are two independent clauses joined without punctuation or without a conjunction. When connecting two independent clauses, some form of punctuation is required.
Incorrect. Mary walked through the meadow she liked the smell of the wild flowers. Correct. Mary walked through the meadow; she liked the smell of the wild flowers. Correct. Mary walked through the meadow and liked the smell of the wild flowers. Correct. Mary walked through the meadow. She liked the smell of the wild flowers.1,6
SPLIT INFINITIVES
Americans tend to insert adverbs between “to” and the verb in an infinitive. Because this tendency has existed for a long time, it sounds correct to most people. Unfortunately, writers are guilty of perpetuating the error. When writing dialogue, a writer must create believable characters, which most of the time means letting them use split infinitives when they speak. But you shouldn’t use split infinitives in those sections of text that are not dialogue. Common split infinitives include:
Incorrect. to quickly go Incorrect. to angrily say Incorrect. to impatiently wait
The most famous splint infinitive in American literature, which includes movie and TV scripts, is “to boldly go” from the Star Trek opening. The adverb in infinitives should follow the verb:
Correct. to go quickly Correct. to say angrily Correct. to wait impatiently
And of course, “to go boldly.”1 d SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
A singular verb must be used with a singular subject and a plural verb with a plural subject. Many singular verbs end with the letter “s” while plural nouns end in “s” as well.
Singular. The cat dreams about chasing mice. Plural. The cats dream about chasing mice.1
Subject and Verb Separated by Dependent Clauses
Incorrect. Conflicts within the group interferes with the ability to reach a consensus. Correct. Conflicts within the group interfere with the ability to reach a consensus.
“Conflicts” and not “group” is the subject of this sentence. Therefore, the verb should be plural not singular because it is “conflicts” that “interfere” with the ability to reach a consensus.11 x Singular Words Assumed to be Plural
Incorrect. The problem of delivery is due to a number of factors. Each are interrelated. Correct. The problem of delivery is due to a number of factors. Each is interrelated.
“Each” is a singular word and so requires the singular verb “is.”11 d Joining Two Subjects with Connecting Words or Phrases d Joining two subjects with some connecting words or phrases often causes a problem. The verb must agree with the subject closest to it. d Incorrect. Maps or a diagram help find the location of the mall. Correct. Maps or a diagram helps find the location of the mall.11
All/Most
The indefinite pronouns “all” and “most” can be singular or plural depending on the phrase that follows the pronoun.
Singular Verb. All of the pie was eaten. Most of the pie was eaten. Pleural Verb. All of the women were pleased. Most of the women were pleased.9
Fractions
If the subject of the sentence is a fraction, look at the phrase that follows the fraction to determine whether the verb should be singular or plural.
Singular Verb. Half of the candy bar was eaten. Plural Verb. Half of the candy bars were eaten.9
Either/neither
If the correlatives “either ... or” or “neither... nor” are present in the sentence, the verb must agree with the subject closest to it.
Pleural Verb. Either Sam or his friends drive to the arena. Singular Verb. Sam’s friends or he drives to the arena.9
Group Nouns
Group nouns such as “team,” “class,” “committee,” and “jury” are considered singular when they are acting as one unit and plural if the members are acting as individuals.
Singular. The team celebrates by eating steaks after every victory. Plural. The team (members) argue over where to eat steaks after each victory. Singular. The committee was formed to nominate a candidate. Plural. The committee (members) were voting on which person to nominate.9
You
The pronoun “you” requires a plural verb whether it is referring to one person or a group of people.
One Person. You were the first one I ever dated Group of People. Do all of you have proper identification?9
A verbal is the form of a verb that is used as another part of speech. The term verbal indicates that it is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. There are three verbals: (1) Participles, (2) gerunds, and (3) infinitives. In addition, each can be used in a phrase.
Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective. Since it functions as an adjective, it modifies a noun or a pronoun. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in “ing.” Past participles usually end in “ed.”
Present Participle. The crying baby was hungry. Past Participle. The overstuffed sofa sat in the den.
A participial phrase is formed by taking a verb's “ing” form (present participle) or its “ed” form (past participle) and adding a prepositional phrase.
Present Participle Phrase. Listening to her sing he was impressed by her vocal range. Past Participle Phrase. Children introduced to music early develop a strong interest in the type of music they heard.12,13
Gerunds
A gerund is a verb that ends in “ing” and is used as a noun. Since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would—subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.
Subject. Reading is an intellectual pursuit. Direct Object. They don’t appreciate my singing. Subject Complement. My dog's favorite activity is lying in my lap. Object of Preposition. The Principal kicked him out of school for cheating.
A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and a modifier, noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that functions as the direct object, indirect object, or complement of the action or state expressed in the gerund.
Subject. Writing fiction is a skill most people don’t possess. Direct Object. I hope you appreciate my offering you this job. Subject Complement. His technique has been lying to his wife. Object of Preposition. You will probably get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid school.12,13
Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word “to” plus a “verb” and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
Subject. To flee seemed dumb since there was no place to hide. Direct Object. I want to sing at the Super Bowl. Adjective. He lacked the strength to resist. Adverb. You must study to learn.
An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive combined with a noun object or a modifying word or phrase.
Direct Object. Sam agreed to share his food. Adjective. I have a lot to do before the game.12,13
When to Use Verbals
Verbals can be used to change the emphasis or to eliminate some wordage.
To Change the Emphasis
In the following paragraph from Rich Hamper notice how the reader's attention is called to the noises.
He couldn't concentrate; the noises were just too distracting. Children quarreled shrilly in the street. Car horns blared as tires squealed. Dogs barked. A vacuum cleaner hummed. Someone beat on a set of drums, trying to pound them into submission.12
Now notice how a little reworking using verbals changes the focus by putting less emphasis on the noises:
His concentration was broken by too many distractions—the shrill quarrelling of children in the street, the blaring of car horns as tires squealed, the barking of dogs, and the beating of drums by someone trying to pound them into submission.12
To Eliminate Some Wordage
Again an example from Hamper:
The siren shrieked and jolted Sam out of a sound sleep. He rolled out of bed and stumbled into the bathroom. He tried to remember what day it was.12
The above can be shortened somewhat to read:
The shrieking siren jolted Sam out of a sound sleep. Rolling out of bed and stumbling into the bathroom, he tried to remember what day it was.12
WHETHER OR NOT
o I’m going shopping whether or not you go (I’m going shopping whether you go or do not go). You should fire him whether or not he is late again. (You should fire him whether he will or will not be late again). |